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SAGE a PS ARON tO PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE A Prospective Study of Memory for Child Sexual Abuse: New Findings Relevant to the Repressed-Memory Controversy Author(s): Gail S. Goodman, Simone Ghetti, .Todi A. Quas, Robin S. Edelstein, Kristen Weede Alexander, Allison D. Redlich, Ingrid M. Cordon and David P. H. Tones Source: Psychological Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Mar., 2003) pp. 113-118 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of the Association for Psychological Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.orestable/40063780 Accessed: 22-04-2018 02:00 UTC 3'STOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers. and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about SSTOR, please contact supporUitjstor.org. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms Sege Publications. Inc.. Association for Psychological Science are collaborating with 3'STOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Psychological Science JSTOR This content downloaded from 169.237.160.75 on Sun. 22 Apr 201802:00:39 INC All use subject to hup://about.protorsttelms 3534-014 Page 1 of 7 EFTA_00010296 EFTA00159944  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Research Article A PROSPECTIVE STUDY OF MEMORY FOR CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE: New Findings Relevant to the Repressed•Memory Controversy Gail S. Goodman,' Simona Ghetti,' Jodi A. Quas,2 Robin S. Edelstein,' Kristen Weede Alexander,' Allison D. Redlich,' Ingrid M. Cordon,' and David P.H. Jones' 'University of California. Davis: 'University of California. Irvine; 'Stanford University; and'University of Oxford. Par* Hospitalfor Children. Oxford. England Abstract—Previous research indicates that many adults (nearly 40%) eluding CSA. 38% of the women failed to disclose the documented fail to report their own documented child sexual abuse (CSA) when abuse. Of the nondisclosers, 68% described other unwanted sexual ex- asked about their childhood experiences. These controversial results periences, a percentage comparable to that among the women who could reflect lack of consciously accessible recollection, thus bolster- disclosed the documented case. Findings also revealed that younger ing claims that traumatic memories may be repressed. In the present victims and those closely related to the perpetrator were less likely to study. 175 individuals with documented CSA histories were inter- disclose• whereas greater use of force during the abuse was positively viewed regarding their childhood trauma. Unlike in previous studies. related to disclosure. Williams concluded that forgetting of CSA is a the majority of participants 691%1 in our study reported the docu- relatively common occurrence. She inferred that the high nondisclo- mented abuse. Older age when the abuse ended. maternal support sure rate for the documented cases was not due solely to reluctance to following disclosure of the abuse, and more severe abuse were associ- discuss sensitive topics (given frequent disclosure of other unwanted ated with an increased likelihood ofdisclosure. Ethnicity and dissoci- sexual experiences); rather, many of the women appeared to have for- ation also played a role. Failure to report CSA should not necessarily gotten the former CSA, probably because of mechanisms specific to be interpreted as evidence that the abuse is inaccessible to memory. memory for traumatic events. although inaccessibility or forgetting cannot be ruled out in a subset In another prospective study, Widom and Morris (1997) inter- of cases. viewed 96 men and women with a history of substantiated CSA that occurred 20 years previously, between 1967 and 1971. Participants were prompted four times regarding CSA. Thirty-seven percent of the Central to the controversy over repressed or lost memory is whether adults did not report any CSA experiences. However. Widom and childhood experiences of sexual abuse can become inaccessible to con- Morris did not compare their participants' current reports with the sciousness. Although core features of stressful events are often panicu- official records to determine whether participants had disclosed the lwly well retained (Christianson. 1992), debate centers on whether, for documented cases. Thus, their nondisclosure rate may be an underesti- highly traumatic events, special memory mechanisms supercede normal mate because cases other than the documented cases may have been memory processes. Some researchers argue that traumatic and benign included among those disclosed. events are subject to identical cognitive operations (e.g., Loftus, Garry, Although only two published studies have investigated memory for & Feldman. 1994; Shobe & Kihlstrom• 1997). According to this view, documented CSA after long delays. the results have far-reaching im- traumatic experiences, like nontraumatic ones, can be forgotten over plications. For instance, findings could be used to support the concept time, especially if they occurred at a young age; special memory mecha- of repression (Kandel & Kandel. 1994; Terr. 1994). as well as statutes nisms to explain forgetting are not needed. Others, however, contend of limitation that begin from the time alleged abuse is remembered. that some events, such as child sexual abuse (CSA). may be so traumatic Still. questions remain regarding the methodology, interpretations, to the psychological self that they become consciously inaccessible for and replicability of the two studies. For instance, because Widom and extended time periods because of special memory mechanisms, such as Morris (1997) did not verify whether the documented case was dis- repression or dissociation (e.g., A. Freud, 1936/1946; S. Freud, 19151 closed. their results concerning predictors are uninterpretabk; and be- 1957; Williams. 1994b: but see Erdelyi. 2031). Proponents of this latter cause Williams's (1994a) sample was restricted in ethnicity. and certain view have relied largely on retrospective studies of CSA (e.g.. Briere & crucial variables (e.g.. abuse severity) were missing, the generalizability Conte, 1993; Elliott & Briere, 1995). which are limited because partici- and interpretation of her findings are open to question. Given the pro- pants' reports cannot be verified. However, two prospective studies (Wi- found implications, it is imperative to extend this body of research. dom & Monis, 1997; Williams, 1994a) revealed sizable percentages of individuals who did not report their previously documented CSA. In her seminal research, Williams (1994a) interviewed 129 women THE PRESENT STUDY (66% of the original sample), mainly African Americans, who had The present study included young adults who, more than a decade been seen at a hospital in the early 1970s because of alleged CSA. earlier, were involved in criminal prosecutions as victims of CSA and When questioned 17 years later about a variety of personal topics, in- participated in a study of court testimony (Goodman et al., 1992). De- tailed documentation of the abuse was available for all cases. The re- search goals were to (a) compare disclosure rates of documented CSA Address correspondence to Gail S. Goodman. Department of Psychology. in the current versus former prospective studies and (b) identify pre- University of California. One Shields Ave.. Davis• CA 95616. dictors of disclosure. VOL. la. NO. 2. MARCH 2003 Copyright 0 2003 American Psychological Society 113 This content downloaded from 169.237.160.75 on Sun. 22 Apr 20111 02:0039 (TIC All use subject to hup://about.jstor.oegfierms 3534-014 Page 2 of 7 EFIA_00010297 EFTA00159945  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Remembering Abuse Several predictors of disclosure were examined. First we consid- (e.g.. Bahrick, 2020). In both Williams's (1994a) and Widom and ered age. Forgetting is more likely for events that occurred before Morris's (1997) samples, the CSA came to authorities' attention. sug- rather than after the offset of childhood amnesia. at approximately age gesting that some of the children were involved in subsequent legal 3 to 5 years (Pillemer & White, 1989; Quas et at, 1999). Indeed. Wil- cases. Yet neither study addressed the relation between disclosure and liam (1994a) reported that women who were abused before age 7 extent of children's legal involvement. Given the importance of elabo- were significantly less likely to disclose than women who were abused rative rehearsal for memory, it is of interest to examine whether legal at or after age 7. In contrast, Widom and Mont (1997) found no effect involvement, including being questioned by authorities and testifying. of age at time of abuse. However, because they did not compare cur- increases the likelihood of adult memory and disclosure of CSA. rent reports with the original cases, it is possible that participants who Familial charactetistics, particularly maternal support, may influ- were abused at an early age, according to documentation, discussed ence long-term memory for abuse. Maternal support and communica- abuse that occurred at a later age (i.e., after the offset of childhood am- tion are positively related to children's emotional and psychological nesia). thus deflating an age effect. adjustment following CSA disclosure (Everson. Hunter. Runyan, A second potentially important predictor of CSA disclosure is gen- Edelson's. & Coulter, 1989; Sas, 1993), to their memory for stressful der. Previous research suggests that compared with females, males are experiences (Goodman. Quas, Batterman-Faunce, Riddlesberger. & less likely to disclose (e.g., DeVoe & Faller, 1999; Finkelhor, Hotel- Kuhn. 1994), and to their maintenance of allegations across interviews lag. Lewis. & Smith. 1990; Widom & Morris. 1997). Williams and (Bradley & Wood. 1996; Rieser, 1991; Sorenson & Snow. 1991). To Banyard (1997) uncovered significant gender differences when they the extent that supportive mothers legitimate their children's allega- compared disclosure in Williams's ( 1994a) sample of women with dis- tions or talk more often with their children about the abuse, maternal closure rates in a sample of men with documented CSA. However, in a support may enhance long-term memory for, or at least individuals regression analysis, only age emerged as a significant predictor of dis- willingness to discuss, the abuse. closure. Widom and Morris found that men's and women's definitions Ethnicity could also play a role in disclosure. CSA sequelae. in- of sexual abuse differed, which may have led to differential disclosure cluding disclosure, may differ according to ethnicity (e.g., Kenny & rates. Specifically, of participants whose responses indicated CSA, McEachem. 2000). Moreover, ethnicity may be correlated with other 64% of the women labeled their experiences as abusive, whereas only factors that could affect memory for CSA (e.g., additional life trau- 16% of the men did so. Men's resistance to define certain sexual acts mas, number of CSA experiences). as abuse, perhaps because of shame, embarrassment, or fear of stigma- Finally, our longitudinal study afforded the opportunity to examine tization, may underlie gender differences in disclosure. several additional potential predictors of long-term memory for abuse Third. the relation between severity of abuse and disclosure is cur- that arc of substantial theoretical importance. These included mental rently under debate. Several researchers have speculated that memory health (e.g.. current dissociative tendencies), relationship betrayal. deteriorates as severity of trauma increases (Terr, 1991; van der Kolk, self-blame for the abuse, and number of other traumas or abuse experi- 1997). Ten (1991). for instance, proposed that repression and dissoci- ences. Dissociation is believed to create holes in autobiographical ation are more common coping reactions in response to long, antici- memory (Bride & Conte, 1993); betrayal of attachment relations is pated. and repeated traumas than in response to single, unanticipated, said to underlie lost memory for abuse (Freyd. 1996): self-blame and short-lived traumas. To the extent that individuals push traumatic should contribute to repression (S. Freud, 1915/1957): and other trau- memories out of consciousness (i.e., repress the information) or disso- mas or abuse experiences could interfere with memory access to the ciate during a trauma, memory would likely be adversely affected documented (target) case. The degree to which these factors contribute when the trauma is more severe. In fact. Williams (1994a) found that to loss of CSA memory provides insight into whether special memory intrafamilial abuse, which tends to be severe, was less likely to be dis- mechanisms underlie nonreponing by adults of childhood trauma. closed than other abuse. However, nondisclosure of severe abuse or abuse perpetrated by a family member may be due to factors other METHOD than forgetting, such as reluctance or embarrassment. Nevertheless, because factors like event salience and personal rele- Participants and Sample Characteristics vance may facilitate memory retention (e.g., Baker-Ward. Hess. & Flanagan, 1990: Bower & Sivers. 1998; Christianson, 1992). severe Between 1985 and 1987, 217 children (51 male, 166 female), ages abuse, which typically includes invasive sexual contact, force, or both. 4 to 17 years. participated in the original study.' At that time, detailed would be more likely to be remembered than less severe abuse. Fur- information was collected from multiple sources (i.e., prosecutor files. ther, given that severe abuse typically involves recurring assault nonoffending caregivers. child victims) regarding characteristics of (Goodman et al., 1992). it is possible that enduring memories are fash- the abuse (e.g.. perpetrator's identity, sexual acts, abuse duration) and ioned through script formation (e.g.. Hudson, Fivush. & Kuebli, 1992; legal case (e.g.. number of times the child testified). None of the cases Nelson, 1986). That is. children who experience repeated abuse by the involved sensational allegations of day-care or satanic ritual abuse. same perpetrator may develop a script of what usually occurs, which Approximately 13 years later (original study to current interview.M would enhance long-term memory of the gist of the abuse and de- 13.09 years, range: 10.66-16.58; end of abuse to current interview. crease the likelihood of complete forgetting. A fourth potential predictor of CSA disclosure is the extent of legal involvement children experience. Within the legal system, child vic- tims are often required to talk repeatedly (e.g.. during forensic inter- I. In the questionnaires for the current study. CSA was defined based on views. while testifying in court) about abuse incidents. Recounting state law, specifying a 4-year child-perpetrator age difference. One participant abuse multiple times may result in elaborative rehearsal, strengthening from the original study is not included in the present report because the pape- children's event representations and enhancing long-term memory tralor was not 4 years older. On that basis, the court dismissed the case. 114 VOL. 14, NO. 2, MARCH 2003 This content downloaded from 169.237.160.75 on Sun. 22 Apr 2015 020039 OTC All use subject to hop://aboutjstor.orgAerms 3534-014 Page 3 of 7 EFIA_00010298 EFTA00159946  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE G.S. Goodman et al. Al = 1186 years. range: 11.50-19.00). the former participants were criteria were the name or identity of the alleged perpetrator and the par- located and invited to take part in a study of legal attitudes and experi- ticipant's age at the time of the legal case. Secondary criteria included ences. Of the 217 original participants. 186 (85.7%) were located and type of sexual activity, frequency and duration of the abuse, and out- 175 (80.6%) were interviewed. Of those located but not interviewed. come of the legal case. Participants' responses were classified, by two 10 (4.6% of the original sample) declined to participate, and 1 was raters, into one of the following categories: (a) clear disclosure of target deceased. case; (b) no disclosure of target case but clear disclosure of another CSA Of the 175 participants interviewed. 141 (80.6%) were female. Partici- experience: (c) disclosure of CSA, but unclear whether the disclosure pants' age at time of interview ranged from 16.7 to 30.3 years = 23.0). matched the target case: or (d) no disclosure of CSA. Sixty-two percent of the sample was Caucasian non-Hispanic. 11% was African American, 16% was Hispanic. and 11% indicated that they had RESULTS AND DISCUSSION "other" racial-ethnic backgrounds. Participants' age when the docu- mented abuse began ranged from 2 to 16 years (Al = 8.7 years), and age Disclosure Rate when the abuse ended ranged from 3 to 16 years (M = 9.2). Mean age at the start of the legal case (when involvement in the original studY began) During the study's first phase. 142 participants (81.1%) disclosed was 9.5 years. The alleged perpetrator was classified as a parent (24%). the target case. Seventeen participants (9.7%) denied ever being vic- person in mist position (Lt. teacher, relative: 40%). acquaintance (29%). tims of CSA. Seven participants (4.0%) reported only cases other than or stranger (7.4%). Of the cases, 89% involved genital contact and 42% those documented in our records. Two participants (1.1%) indicated involved penetration. The results of: tests comparing participants who did that their parent told them that they were victims of GSA, but they had and did not take part in the current study failed to reveal any significant no memory of the abuse. Because of their lack of memory, the latter 2 differences in age when abuse began or ended, severity of abuse, and ex- individuals were classified as nondisclosers. Additionally, 3 individu- tent of legal imolvement, ts(199 to 216) = —1.08 to 1.60. ps > .11. al- als (1.7%) provided only sparse and ambiguous information. and 2 though females were more likely than males to participate in the current other individuals (1.1%) disclosed being victims of CSA but declined researdt x(1. N = 217) = 8.1, p < .01. to answer further questions, thus preventing us from establishing whether they were referring to the target case. One participant (0.6%) declined to answer any questions about sexual abuse. Finally, the Procedure mother of a child under 18 years old (0.6%) requested that we not ask The study was conducted in three phases: (a) a phone interview (n = about CSA. These latter 7 participants were excluded from subsequent 175); (b) mailed questionnaires Or - 129). including psychometri- analyses, leaving 168 individuals for whom it was possible to estab- cally sound. standardized questionnaires of psychopathology, such as lish clearly whether or not the documented case was disclosed. the Dissociative Experiences Scale (Bernstein & Putnam. 1986) and Of these 168 participants, only 15.5% (n = 26) did not report the the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (Foa. Cashman. laycox. & Perry. target case in the phone interview.' a percentage considerably lower 1997); and (c) an in-person interview (n w 107).' For scientific and than that reported by both Williams (1994a) and Widom and Morris ethical reasons, participants were never told that we knew of their past (1997). There are several potential explanations for this discrepancy. victimization, legal involvement, or participation in the original study. First, the age range at the time of the abuse was smaller in the former The current research was described as concerning legal attitudes and studies than in ours (Williams. 10 months-12 years; Widom & Moths, experiences. In all three phases. information about mental health, vic- 0-11 years). When our sample was restricted to individuals abused at timization, legal experiences, and attitudes toward the legal system age 12 years and younger. however, our nondisclosure rate did not was elicited. For the present report, we examined only data relevant to change appreciably (17%, 22 out of 131). Second. because the target CSA disclosure, which consisted primarily of data collected during case was closely followed during the prosecution (Goodman et al., the initial interview. Questions about CSA were interspersed through- 1992), extensive documentation was available to identify it. Previous out the interview and concerned legal involvement as a result of al- studies relied on single sources of information, such as medical records, leged CSA. as well as experiences of CSA whether or not they were which may have led to an underestimation of disclosure because of diffi- reported to the authorities. CSA was defined as exhibitionism, sexual culty matching current to past records (Loftus et al., 1994). The percent- touching, kissing, rape, oral sex. intercourse, or any type of completed age of individuals denying ever having been sexually abused as children or attempted CSA that occurred when the participant was under age is comparable in Williams's study (12%, 16 out of 129) and in the cur- 18 and with a person at least 4 years older. Upon disclosure, additional rent study (10%, 17 out of 168). However, the percentage of individuals questions (e.g.. "What was the person's name?" "What was his/her re- who did not disclose the target case but disclosed other cases war lationship to your) were asked to identify the documented case. greater in Williams's study than the current study (26% and 4%, respec- tively). Thus, at least some of Williams's cases classified as "other may have actually been the documented case. Target-Case Identification Several criteria were used to determine whether participants reported the target case (the one documented in the original study). The primary 3. When the subset Massa (67%) with corroborative evidence (e.g.. con- fession, eyewitness, physical evidence) for the target sexual abuse was consid- ered, the disclosure rate (85.5%) was similar to that reported fee the entire 2. The number of respondents varies across the study's phases because sample. These findings indicate that lack of disclosure was not due to the orig- some participants who had completed the first phase declined to participate in inal report of abuse being false. Three individuals now claim that the abuse al- the second and third phases (5% and 2%, respectively) or could not be re- legation was false. The basic findings do not differ whether or not these located (21% and 19%. respectively). individuals are included. VOL. 14. NO. 2. MARCH 2003 115 This content downloaded from 169.237.160.75 on Sun. 22 Apr 20111 010039 LITC All use subject to hup://about.jstor.oegrierms 3534-014 Page 4 of 7 EFIA_00010299 EFTA00159947  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Remembering Abuse Third, the majority of Williams's (1994a) sample was African preached significance. Legal involvement. gender. and perpetrator American. whereas the majority of our sample was Caucasian non- relationship were not significant predictors. Hispanic. CSA sequelae, including disclosure, may differ according to As in previous research (e.g., Howe. 2000). experiencing CSA in ethnicity (e.g.. Kenny & McEachem. 2000). In our study, the disclo- early childhood reduced the likelihood of CSA recall: 87% of the par- sure rate was higher for Caucasian non-Hispanics than African Ameri- ticipants whose abuse ended after age 5 disclosed the documented cans: 87.6% and 70.0%. respectively. x'(I, N = 166) = 4.07. p < .05. case, compared with 69% of the participants whose abuse ended at age In fact, the nondisclosure rate for African Americans (30%) ap- 5 or earlier. Contrary to the notion that abuse severity should be nega- proached that reported by Williams. Memory interference due to a tively associated with disclosure. victims of more severe abuse were greater number of life traumas or other CSA experiences did not ex- more likely to disclose (mean severity for disclosers = 4.93) than plain the finding (rs = 1.151). were victims of less severe abuse (mean severity for nondisclosers = Interestingly, of the 26 nondisclosers. 12 reported the target case 4.37). These results appear consistent with the idea that memory for during the second (i.e., mailed questionnaire; n = 9) or third (i.e., in- abuse, like memory for other events, is positively affected by event du- person interview; n a 3) phase of the present study. Thus, some non- ration and salience (e.g., extent of sexual contact, level of force, and disclosers may have remembered the CSA but omitted that informa- injury, which were indicators of abuse severity). tion because of an initial disinclination to report (see della Felten*. Maternal support was also associated with increased disclosure Yeager. & Lewis. 1990). It is also possible that our questioning rates. Eighty percent of the individuals who received maternal support spurred participants to ask caretakers about past abuse or served as a disclosed, whereas 68% of those who did not receive maternal support retrieval cue for previously inaccessible memories. reported the documented case. Individuals who, as children. felt be- lieved, supported. and legitimated when making their allegations may Predictors of Disclosure be more willing or able years later to discuss their victimization. Significant gender differences in disclosure were not found (15.2% The study's second goal was to identify predictors of disclosure. of males and 15.6% of females failed to disclose). It is possible that, as First, to examine age effects on disclosure, we divided the sample into a result of changes in societal attitudes toward sexual abuse, males two groups based on whether abuse ended at age 5 or earlier (n = 28) or who experienced CSA in the 1970s rather than 1980s. or who were in- after age 5 (n = 140). Second. we constructed a composite measure of terviewed nearly a decade before the present study (as in the former abuse severity consisting of abuse duration, extent of sexual contact, prospective research). may have been more reluctant to admit to vic- amount of force used, and extent of injury sustained because of the timization. Alternatively, males in the present study may be nonrepre- abuse (Al = 4.84, range: 2-10; higher scores indicate more severe sentative of male CSA victims. abuse). Third. perpetrator identity was coded as a parental figure (it = Legal involvement did not significantly predict disclosure. al- 42) or not a parental figure (n =126). Fourth. participants were identi- though disclosure rates tended to be higher among individuals with fied as having received (n = 138) or not having received (n = 22; 8 more extensive legal involvement. Of the 51 participants who testified missing) maternal support following the abuse disclosure (see Goodman in court. 8% did not disclose. compared with 17% of the 59 partici- et al.. 1992, for details concerning the original study's measures). Fifth. pants who went to the courthouse to testify but never took the stand ethnicity was coded as African American (n = 20) versus all others (n = and 21% of the 58 who never went to the courthouse in the target case 146; 2 missing). Finally, participants' legal involvement was scored as Note that even for the 58 individuals with limited legal involvement, 1. child never went to courthouse (n = 58); 2, child went to courthouse the proportion of nondisclosers was considerably smaller than that in but did not testify (n = 59); or 3. child went to courthouse and testified former studies.' (n a 51): the mean score for this variable was 1.96. Finally. several additional variables were examined because of We performed a logistic regression analysis in which the dichoto- their theoretical importance. Number of other CSA experiences and mous disclosure variable was regressed on dichotomous age at the end other traumas might predict nondisclosure to the extent that interfer- of the abuse. victim gender, abuse severity, perpetrator relationship, ence erodes memory. Frequency of the target abuse should also predict maternal support. ethnicity. and extent of legal involvement (see Table lost memory, according to a psychoanalytic perspective (Tem. 1991). 1). Age when abuse ended, abuse severity, and maternal support sig- although a general-memory-mechanism perspective suggests that it nificantly predicted disclosure. The results for ethnicity closely ap- should strengthen recall. None of these variables was significantly re- lated to disclosure. rs < I ICC ns < 168. Of clinical importance, rela- tionship betrayal (Freyd. 1996). childhood behavior problems (Child Behavior Checklist total T score; Achenbach, 1991). and current post- 11)ble 1. Logistic regression predicting disclosure traumatic stress disorder symptoms (Foot et al., 1997) were not signifi- Variable B SE Wald df p cant predictors. rs < 1.111. ns < 168. Self-blame, r(124) = .21. p < .05. was significantly correlated with disclosure, but in a direction op- Victim age 1.21 0.58 4.34 .04 posite to Freudian prediction (more self-blame, more likely to dis- Victim gender 0.12 0.60 0.04 .84 close). and it was nonsignificant in logistic regression analysis. Abuse severity 0.34 0.16 4.35 .04 Maternal support 1.38 0.60 5.27 .02 Interestingly, dissociation (Dissociative Experiences Scale) was sig- Relationship with perpetrator -0.25 038 0.19 .66 Legal involvement 0.48 0.31 2.31 .13 Ethnicity —1.18 0.62 3.61 .06 4. The delay from abuse to interview was longer in previous studies than in ours. When delay (time from the police report to our phone interview) was also Nose Nagetkerke R3 a .201.267.N = 158) 4 19.34.p <.01. considered in the logistic regression analysis, its contribution did not reach sig- nificance (p = 14 and other relations were virtually unchanged. 116 VOL. It, NO. 2, MARCH 2003 This content downloaded from 169.237.160.75 on Sun. 22 Apr 2018 0100:39 OTC All use subject to hup://aboutjstorsegiterms 3534-014 Page 5 of 7 EFIA_00010300 EFTA00159948  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE G.S. Goodman et al. nificantly correlated with disclosure. co = .24.P < and was a Bt eat. H.P. (20004 Lang-lean maintenance of knawledge. In E. Talents @ F.I.M. Croak (Eels.). The Won( handbook ofmemory (pa 347-362). New York: Oxford Cream significant predictor in a logistic regression analysis: More dissocia- say Press. tive individuals were less likely to disclose. However, because the Baker.Ward. L. Hess. TM . & Flanagan. D.A. 09904 The effects of involvenum on measure was included only in the mailed questionnaires, and the sam- children's memory for merits Cogninse Development. S. 55-69. Benntein. E W .@ Putnam. F.W. (1986). Development reliatalay. and validity as disso- ple was thus smaller and somewhat biased toward participants who al- ciation scale. The Monad ofNervous and Mental Manse, 174, 727-735. ready disclosed abuse, dissociation was not included in our main Bower. G.. & Severs. II. (1998). Cognitive impact of traumatic atillS DemItmettent regression analysis.' Ponhopornology. /0.625-633. Bradley, A R . & Wood, J.M. (1996). How do children all? The discknure process in Chili KIWI abuse. Child Abase & Makes. 9.881-891. Brien. J.. @ Conte. J.R. (1993). Self.reponed amnesia for abase in adults moksicil as Conclusion children Mama( of Trainman( Sons 6. 21-31. Briere.1..& RUOIL St. 09f46.Symmomatology associated with childhood imual Results from this study indicate that forgetting of CSA may not be imam in a nondirkal adult maple. nue Abuse & Neglect. 12. 51-39. a common experience, at least not in a prosecution sample. Although Chnstiansort. 5.-A. (1992). Emotional stress and moraines may: A critical review. African Americans' nondisclosure rate was 30%, lack of willingness Psmhological Balkan. 112. 284-309. delta Ferris's. D.. WWI. CA.. & IAwiK D.O. (1990). ChM abase: Adolescent records is. to disclose seems the most parsimonious explanation for the differ- With recall. Child Abase d Nitta-41d n7-2n. ence across racial groups. Detiree. E.R.. & Faller. K.C.11999). The tharactertuies of disclosure among children who may lave been sexually abseil Child Malteratmmu.4. 217-217. Abuse severity and age at which the abuse was experienced were EThoti D.M.. & Brine. 1. (1995). Poutniumatic stress associated with delayed recall of positively related to disclosure, a result consistent with general mem- wheal abuse: A mars population study. Journal of Tanana& Snell. R. 629-647. ory principles. It is well established that salient events are generally Erdelyi. M.H. 110314 Defense processes can be conscious or urICOOSOOM. American Psy- chologist, 56, 761-762. remembered over time, provided that they occur after the offset of Eienon. M.D.. Hunter. W.M.. Runyan. D.K.. Edelsohn. G.A.. & Coulter. M.L 119891 childhood amnesia. Because severe abuse is often a salient experience. Maternal support following disclosure of incest. ttaweican Journal of Or:Anal:whit). it should be recalled. Further. that maternal support predicted disclo- ny. 59. 197-207. Endgame. D.. Holding. G.. Lats. I.A. & Smith. C. (1990). Sexual abuse in a national sure many years later highlights the importance of social factors in re- survey of adult men and women: Prevalence. cluracleristics. and risk factors Child lation to CSA disclosure. These findings do not support the existence Abase d Wakes. M. 19-28. Fos. EH.. Cashman, L. Jaycos. L. @ Petty. K. 119973 The validation of a selfwepon of special memory mechanisms unique to traumatic events, but instead measure of pourraunutic stress decoke The Poolroom:tic Diagnostic Scale. Psi. imply that normal cognitive operations underlie long-term memory for ehigoskoltlartanent. 9.445-451. CSA. The role of dissociation, however, deserves further study. Our Freud. A. (1946). The ego and the mechanisms of defense (C. Baines. Trans). New York: International Crimmins Press. (Original work published 19361 results, along with findings that abuse leads to dissociative tendencies Freud. S. 119371. Repression. In J. Strachey (Ed. @ Tram.i. The standard Masao of the (Briere & Runtz, 1988) and that dissociation predicts false memory complete psychological worts of Simnand Freud Obl. 11. pp. 146-1581. London. (Hyman & Billings. 1998). may imply an important role for dissocia- Hoganh (Original work published 19151 Freyd. 1.1. (19961. Dictate! mama: The ingac offorgetting childhood alma. Cambridge. tion in understanding lost and false memory of CSA. A fundamental MA: Harvard University Press challenge for future research will be to integrate cognitive, social, and Goodman. G.S.. Qum. J.A. Batterman.Famice. J.M.. Riddktherger. MM.. & Kuhn. 1. 119911. Predictors of accurate and inaccurate memories of traumatic oats experi- clinical factors into theories of memory for childhood trauma. enced in childhood. CMOtiOSAIROM and Cognition. 3. 269-294. Goodman. G.S.. Tart. EP.. Jones. D.P.H., England. P. Pon. L K.. Rudy. L.. & Prado. L. (19924 Testifying in criminal court. Monograph! of the Sawn for Aryan* in Acknowledgments—This snick is based on work supported by the Na- CALM DeneMptiond. 5715, Serial No. 229). tional Science Foundation under Grant 0004369. Any opinions, findings. Have. M.L. 12003). The foie of ear& swamies: Developmental science and the reteation and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of